Battle Abbey

Battle Abbey, East Sussex 

1066 is renowned for being one of the most famous years in English history. It is a historical narrative etched into our brains since school. On 5th January, the English king named Edward the Confessor died without a direct heir. The following day, Harold Godwinson, the popular and resolute Earl of Wessex, was elected to sit on the vacant throne. William, Duke of Normandy (later known as William the Conqueror, also known as William the Bastard), and Harald Hardrada, King of Norway—were two ruthless leaders who yearned for conquest and claimed legitimacy to wear the English crown. Harald Hardrada would be the first to strike England with King Harold's exiled brother, Tostig Godwinson. After the Norwegian invasion force had landed, the two moved on to York and defeated Edwin, Earl of Mercia, and Morcar, Earl of Northumbria. On 25th September, Harold would march his army north to best them at the Battle of Stamford Bridge. Within days, Duke William would make his move and arrive with his fleet at Pevensey (or other nearby landing sites) in East Sussex. King Harold's army would swiftly endure a march of 270 miles to face-off with William’s forces at a location near Hastings, East Sussex; this location would later be known as Battle. On 14th October, the Battle of Hastings famously ended in Harold's death and defeat, with William succeeding the crown in victory and the eventual conquest over England.   [caption id="attachment_369" align="aligncenter" width="1024"] by Vittorio Vida, Bayeux Tapestry (close up), via https://www.flickr.com/photos/vittoriovida/7354397384/[/caption]   [caption id="attachment_370" align="aligncenter" width="1024"] by Andre, Bayeux Tapestry, via Flickr: https://www.flickr.com/photos/andreroseta/6248779469/[/caption]   William had layered reasons to endorse the abbey's construction. Tradition states before the battle, William pledged to build in commemoration an abbey free from episcopal control if he were to be victorious. Freedom from episcopal governance meant that the community had certain privileges protecting it against intervention from church authorities, such as regional bishops. These precursory mandates made Battle a propriety abbey, also known in Germanic Christian culture as an 'eigenkirche' and an 'ecclesia propria' in Latin. Only Canterbury had the same measure of status. In addition to the battle, William would dedicate the establishment of the abbey to the Holy Trinity, Virgin Mary and St Martin of Tours—a favoured saint among Norman society. William's motivation to push for the abbey's creation could have been born from either self-merit, guilt or spiritual penance, or a mixture of all three. A good indicator of William's character and consideration is that the chosen site was unpopular with both monks and builders. The ground area had a soft clay surface compounded with an undrained swamp. The nearby battlefield would have been uneven heathland partly enclosed by the dense forest of the Weald (a large forest that once covered most of South East England). Nonetheless, despite the extra building costs and lack of a suitable water supply, William fiercely commanded the project to proceed with the high altar of its church marking the spot where Harold ostensibly fell in battle after receiving the famous arrow to the eye.   [caption id="attachment_345" align="aligncenter" width="916"] by Pauline Galna, Wooden Sculpture of a Norman Archer in front of Battle Abbey, via https://www.flickr.com/photos/144988921@N07/45239681212/[/caption] Thousands died at the Battle of Hastings in 1066, but many more perished in England as William consolidated his throne with an iron fist. A ruthless example of William's attempt to quell any rebellions against his rule was during the campaigns of 1069-70 in Northern England, known as the Harrying of the North. An Anglo-Danish uprising would engender William to march his forces North to commit the mass slaughter and starvation of its people, the destruction and pillaging of its communities and farmsteads, and the displacement of its regional Anglo-Saxon nobility and population. William did a scorched earth tactic to break the North's will while sending a message to the rest of England that he was here to stay. However, this unsurprisingly came at a cost to his image and conscience. Thus, Battle Abbey's existence was likely also born from moral atonements demanded by Pope Alexander II and the Bishops of Normandy for the ruthless invasion and subjugation of the English. According to a contemporary Benedictine monk named Orderic Vitalis, William the Conqueror was quoted to have confessed his transgressions on his deathbed: 'I've persecuted the natives of England beyond all reason, whether gentle or simple. I have cruelly oppressed them and unjustly disinherited them, killed innumerable multitudes by famine or the sword and become the barbarous murderer of many thousands both young and old of that fine race of people.'   [caption id="attachment_348" align="aligncenter" width="306"] Statue of William the Conqueror, Falaise, France, Man vyi, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons[/caption] Aside from the Bayeux Tapestry and accounts made by a contemporary historian named William of Poitiers,the exact location of the Battle of Hastings is shrouded in mystery. The longstanding concept is that the battle took place on abbey grounds. Although, some sources debate whether the bulk of the fighting near the Hastings area instead happened at Crowhurst (a village 3 miles south of modern-day Battle) or Caldbec Hill (1 mile north of the abbey). However, from William's unyielding drive and detail to construct the abbey against opposing requests, we can surmise from its ongoing special status that its location held substantial value both historically and politically. The first holy residents of the abbey would be monks imported from Marmoutier, France. Though founded in 1067, the completion of the abbey and its church would happen between 1070-1094. William the Conqueror would never see the project finished, but his son, William (also known as Rufus, meaning 'the Red' in Latin), would see it completed. At the time of completion, it was one of the wealthiest religious establishments in the whole of England.   [caption id="attachment_352" align="aligncenter" width="1024"] by Emma, Vaulted Novices' Chamber, via https://www.flickr.com/photos/24771208@N05/2735696497/[/caption] During its heyday, the abbey would have consisted of a great gatehouse (as the entrance), a courthouse, a chapter house, an inner parlour, a precinct wall, the abbey church (which included the alter positioned in the legendary spot where Harold died during the battle), a terrace and guest range (used by the Cellarer for offices and additional storage), a common room, a cloister, an infirmary and a dairy and icehouse. In addition, the dining hall, kitchen and frater were located in the south-range; the west-range housed storage and accommodation; and lastly, sited at the east-range was the dorter, latrines and novices' chamber. Historical significance alone would bestow wealth and advantages upon Battle Abbey. Being free from episcopal polity left it spared from clerical examination by the local Bishop of Chichester. Nonetheless, the Archbishop of Canterbury still had the sole right to interfere with the abbey's domestic affairs.

'He who labours as he prays lifts his heart to God with his hands.'

[caption id="attachment_385" align="aligncenter" width="348"] Saint Benedict of Nursia, NN, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons[/caption] These are the words and Rule of St Benedict that the monks at Battle lived by daily. A mixture of prayer, liturgy and work structured life at the abbey. As the abbey flourished, so did the town of Battle on its doorstep. Local merchants, traders, farmers and artisans profited greatly through providing services and commodities to the monastic community. The town's contribution did not go unnoticed; in 1115, St Marys Church (which still stands today) was established by Abbot Ralph and his monks for the community. [caption id="attachment_355" align="aligncenter" width="683"] by Paul Jackson, St Mary's Church, Battle, East Sussex, via https://www.flickr.com/photos/92943860@N00/299346047/[/caption] From 1139, Abbot Walter de Luci became a prominent protector and innovator for Battle Abbey. Unfortunately for de Luci, the abbey's existence did not sit well with opposing jurisdictions at Canterbury and Chichester. Theobald of Bec, Archbishop of Canterbury, did not want a rival establishment of equal power; moreover, Bishop Hilary of Chichester did not want to omit a valuable asset within his diocese. So, in 1157, a case was put together and presented to Henry II that challenged the abbey's charter. To Canterbury and Chichester, the story of William's pre-battle vow of episcopal control was seen as being a convenient and far-fetched safeguard for Walter. And they both had a right to be dubious—for, in 1154, the aforementioned vow initially emerged in a forged charter which the monks at Battle had produced. Nonetheless, due to personal affinities from the king and his court, the forgery was still enough to preserve the abbey's special status. During the thirteenth century, the abbots put most of their finances towards revamping the abbey's church and the buildings near the cloister. In 1211, to keep Battle's old episcopal freedoms, the monks had to pay King John 1500 marks, which was a considerable amount of money for the time. Battle earned more power and privileges during Hamo of Offyngton's tenure as abbot from 1364–83. Though the mitre (an ornate hat worn for special ceremonies) is exclusively bespoken for bishops, consent was granted by the papacy for the abbots of Battle to wear one thenceforth. In addition, it became common for Battle abbots to contribute to matters of secular governance via a seat in parliament (the House of Lords). Alas, what also became common, were coastal incursions made by French forces during the Hundred Years War. The abbots would provide security and safety to the local towns and their inhabitants, to the extent that Abbot Hamo himself, at the head of a small army, successfully repelled a French force close to Winchelsea in 1377. The defences against French raids would amount to further costs. Eventually, in the fourteenth century, the Black Death would incur a substantial loss of life within the Battle community. These compounding factors massively drained the abbey's resources [caption id="attachment_357" align="aligncenter" width="671"] Edward II after the Battle of Crécy in 1346 during the Hundred Years War, Virgil Master (illuminator), Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons[/caption]   [caption id="attachment_372" align="aligncenter" width="640"] by N Chadwick, The Gatehouse, Battle Abbey, CC BY-SA 2.0, via Wikimedia Commons[/caption]   The final blow came during the reign of Henry VIII after his split from the Catholic faith. From 1536-1541, King Henry would dissolve monasteries, abbeys, friaries, convents and priories across his kingdom. It would be a time known as the Dissolution of the Monasteries, and not even Battle Abbey could escape its penalties. Henry's decision to split from Rome to create the Church of England was very advantageous for him. Not only could he divorce his wife, Catherine of Aragon, but he could confiscate many wealthy Catholic assets within England. For example, during the 16th century, Battle Abbey's income was valued at £880 per year, equivalent to £873,000 today. The contemporary abbot was John Hamond, and although Henry would remove Hamond and his monks from the abbey, the king would still grant them pensions and reparations. [caption id="attachment_360" align="aligncenter" width="582"] Henry VIII, After Hans Holbein the Younger, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons[/caption] Henry would gift Battle and most of its estates, along with a nunnery, priory and two other abbeys, to Sir Anthony Browne. Anthony was the king's Master of the Horse, Standard Bearer, Knight of the Shire and closest confidant. Before turning the west-range (the abbot's residence) into a secular country house, Anthony demolished sections of the cloister while completely tearing down the church and chapter house. Additionally, he restructured the old guesthouse into lodgings for notable visitors. During the late 17th century, his great-grandson, Francis Browne (3rd Viscount of Montagu), had the old monastic kitchen razed. [caption id="attachment_362" align="aligncenter" width="405"] Sir Anthony Browne, Unknown authorUnknown author, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons[/caption] Being best mates with the most powerful man in the country had its perks for Sir Anthony Browne. Anthony would pass these paternal privileges down to his son and successor, also named Anthony Browne. During the short reign of Mary I, she made Anthony Browne (Jr) the 1st Viscount of Montagu. Paradoxically, despite his father playing his part well in the Dissolution, he was devoted to Catholicism and created a national hub at Battle for contemporary Catholics.   The abbey's fate fell to another Anthony Browne—the 6th Viscount of Montagu—who sold the estate between 1715-1721 to politician Sir Thomas Webster, 1st Baronet. Under the Websters, they demolished the guest range renovated initially by the first Sir Anthony Browne, with the estate grounds and parks falling into poor condition. Yet, it would take the 5th Baronet, Sir Geoffrey Webster, to make beneficial investments in restoring and excavating the property during the early 19th century. More keen renovation investors came when the Duke and Duchess of Cleveland bought and resided in the abbey from 1857–1901. The two would employ the services of the architect Henry Clutton, who would build a new library in the west range alongside improving other derelict areas. [caption id="attachment_363" align="aligncenter" width="1000"] Battle Abbey Ruins/Dorter, WyrdLight.com, CC BY-SA 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons[/caption] The Duchess of Cleaveland would die in 1901, resulting in the Webster family repurchasing the estate. Even today, only the slight layout of the old abbey church remains. As a result, the famous high altar, which would have stood to mark the alleged area where Harold fell, would be replaced by a memorial plague in 1903. The plaque was erected as a symbolic monument to Harold donated by the people of Normandy. From 1922 to the present day, the abbot's lodgings in the west-range has been part of the Battle Abbey School. Unfortunately, parts of the estate were severely damaged during a fire in 1931. However, another architect by the name of Sir Harold Brakspear would create a further restoration project. Alongside architecture, Brakspear was also an avid archaeologist and would publish an illustrated historical sketchbook of Battle Abbey. During WW2, Canadian troops were predominately stationed at Battle Abbey, with one bomb being dropped by a low flying German aircraft that narrowly missed the main gatehouse. [caption id="attachment_364" align="aligncenter" width="1024"] Harold Monument, WyrdLight.com, CC BY-SA 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons[/caption]   [caption id="attachment_365" align="aligncenter" width="1000"] Battle Abbey School/Dorter and Cloister Remains, WyrdLight.com, CC BY-SA 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons[/caption] In the wake of 900 years of history, the lack of upkeep funds resulted in long periods of intermittent disuse and disrepair; in the end, the Webster descendants sold the abbey to the state in 1976. This purchase was only possible thanks to a donation given by a group of American citizens to celebrate the bicentenary of the United States. It is now under the care of English Heritage as a Grade I listed site with continuous structural conservation and archaeological excavations. Tourists flock from across the UK and worldwide to visit the abbey ruins, 13th-16th century buildings, museum, re-enactment events and assumed battlefield location (situated in front of the site to the south). [caption id="attachment_366" align="aligncenter" width="1024"] Battle Abbey Entrance for Visitors. Photographer: Ann Collier. Flickr: https://flic.kr/p/2mrEpGV[/caption]   Author: Thomas Davies  

Is the Old English Language Worth Learning?

Some people master another language for travel, work, relationships, education, networking and culture; others even go to the effort of learning fictional languages from their favourite books, movies and TV shows. But it is not often that people turn to ancient linguistics in search of discovering new forms of communication. 

 

Spanish lecturer teaching two students Images by Jay Grabiec, East Illinois University. Flickr: https://flic.kr/p/2auDKkG

Old English is a language which the Anglo-Saxons spoke from the 5th century. It is part of the Germanic dialect family and is the ancestor of Modern English. The official use of Old English simultaneously came to an end with the Anglo-Saxon rule of England after the Norman conquest in 1066. Its use among the native populace started to dwindle by 1150. Its purpose now is for academic and historical exercise, but could its use be more prevalent in modern society?           

 

Well, to learn any language requires a certain amount of passion and discipline. It also requires a community and environment where people can practice and converse using day-to-day vernacular. Having a platform in place is imperative for the preservation of any language, especially as future opportunities to use Old English in a Kentish alehouse or at a Mercian market are unrealistic, unfortunately. 

 

Anglo-Saxon tradesman Image by Amhjp Photography. Flickr: https://flic.kr/p/noTp1L

Language has always been a popular subject and past-time for students and hobbyists around the world. For budding linguists who use English as their mother-tongue, a recurring question tends to be: "What language is the easiest to learn for native English speakers?" Well, though it is not widely spoken, Frisian (or West Frisian) is the most straightforward to learn. Another rival contender for this title is Norwegian. Here are some quick demonstrations of Frisian and Norweigan:

 

(Frisian) Myn namme is... 

 

(Norweigan) Mitt navn er...  

 

If you haven't already deciphered, both phrases mean 'My name is...' (the Frisian version is a big giveaway!). Like English, Frisian and Norweigan are Germanic in origin; however, English and Frisian are categorised as West Germanic, whereas Norweigan is North Germanic. To understand the diachrony of how they became to be so similar, we must go back to the formative years of English history. Approximately in AD 450, Germanic tribes invaded Britain from Northern Germany, Southern Scandinavia and Friesland (modern-day Netherlands). These tribes, which later amalgamated into the Anglo-Saxon people, would conquer and expel the native Celtic Britons (or, as they are also known: Romano-Britons). Thus, Germanic dialects spoken by the now Anglo-Saxon ruling elite would replace the native Brittonic (or Brythonic) language. The Brittonic influence on Old English is still a debate which causes a fervent divide between historians and philologians. The linguistic impact of the Britons is widely considered to be too speculative and minor to have had a profound effect on Old English etymology, toponymy and grammatical structure. 

 

Anglo-Saxon Reenactment Battle Image by Amhjp Photography. Flickr: https://flic.kr/p/nFo4qM

As the Anglo-Saxons settled Britain, they would create separate kingdoms—most notably East Anglia, Essex (East Saxons), Kent, Northumbria, Mercia, Sussex (South Saxons) and Wessex (West Saxons). Old English would flourish in the form of dialects within these kingdoms (i.e. Kentish, Northumbrian, Mercian and West Saxon). Old English is a synthetic language like German, Greek and Russian. Synthetic languages use grammatical inflexions and agglutinations to categorise and morph word tenses, moods, persons, numbers, cases, and genders. Consequently, due to the Germanic core of Old English, a present-day English speaker would likely have a hard time trying to communicate with a pre-12th-century Anglo-Saxon. In contrast, a present-day German speaker would be able to recognise some similarities in phonetics and lexical flow. Here are some examples of Old English grammar using the noun Rodor, which translates as sky or heavens. 

 

~beorht (bright, clear-sighted, clear-sounded, magnificent) - Rodorbeorht (heavenly, bright).

 

~cyning (king) - Rodorcyning (king of heaven, Christ).

 

~lihting (shining, illumination, light) - Rodorlihting - (dawn). 

 

~stōl (stool, chair, throne) - Rodorstōl (celestial throne). 

 

~torht (bright, beautiful, illustrious) - Rodortorht (heavenly bright). 

 

~tungol (heavenly body, star, constellation) - Rodortungol (star of heaven). 

 

Escomb Anglo-Saxon Church Image by David Pollard. Flickr: https://flic.kr/p/271N8mG

  

 The propagation of Christianity would then sweep the Anglo-Saxon world at the beginning of the 7th century. This new religion would bring its Latin scripture replacing the Germanic Runic alphabet. Naturally, some words were exsorbed into Old English: 

 

Altaris (Latin) - Altar (Old English and Modern English)

 

Apostolo (Latin) - Apostel (Old English) - Apostle (Modern English)

 

Missa (Latin) - Messe (Old English) - Mass (Modern English)

 

Monachus (Latin) - Munuc (Old English) - Monk (Modern English)  

 

Viking Warriors Marching Image by Ian Livesey. Flickr: https://flic.kr/p/2gGLMPF

 

The Viking invasion of England during the 9th century brought about further changes and near extinction to Old English. During this period, Anglo-Saxon England was made up of four dominant kingdoms: East Anglia, Mercia, Northumbria and Wessex. Three of these dominions had fallen victim to the Danish and Norse occupation; only Wessex still stood firm. In 878 at the Battle of Edington, history would be made on a knife-edge as Alfred the Great, King of Wessex, would make his last stand and obtain victory against the Vikings. Alfred's success at Edington would help to secure the survival of England's future and its language. It also turned the West Saxon dialect into the main form of Old English.

 

Two Anglo-Saxon Women Sewing Image by Anthony D Barraclough. Flickr: https://flic.kr/p/2jwBv1d

 

The Scandinavian influence didn't end there, after the Battle of Edington the country was diagonally split in two. The Anglo-Saxons would take the South and South West, and the Danish Vikings would take the North and North East—a region which would be known as the Danelaw. Alfred implicated a treaty that would not allow Danes or West Saxons to cross the border unless for trade. During this time of peace and commerce, the Viking tongue called Old Norse/Old Danish would intermingle with Old English leaving an indelible imprint. Some examples of evolving cognates:

 

Deyja (Old Norse) - Dīeġan (Old English) - Die (Modern English)

 

Grænn (Old Norse) - Grene (Old English) - Green (Modern English)

 

Jarl (Old Norse) - Eorl (Old English) - Earl (Modern English)

 

Knífr (Old Norse) - Cnīf (Old English) - Knife (Modern English)

 

Plógr (Old Norse) - Plōh (Old English) - Plough (Modern English), although, the Old English form refers to a size of land used for ploughing. 

 

Rót (Old Norse) - Rōt (Old English) - Root (Modern English)

 

Taka (Old Norse) - Tacan (Old English) - Take (Modern English)    

 

Norman Knights Image by pg tips2. Flickr: https://flic.kr/p/NgYEWp

 

The Norman conquest of England during the 11th century brought a further influx of Latinate words from French, resulting in Old English starting to evolve into Middle English. Middle English was a type of dialect which was widely spoken until the late 1400s, and it combined Old English cognates with Romance influences from French and Latin. It was relatively more coherent for a Modern English speaker in terms of spelling and grammar, but still shared some vowel pronunciations similar to Old English: 

 

Segen (Old English) - Seyde (Middle English) - Said (Modern English)

 

Ne (Old English) - Nat (Middle English) - Not (Modern English)

 

Fram (Old English) - Fro (Middle English) - From (Modern English)

 

 Genóh (Old English) - Ynogh (Middle English) - Enough (Modern English)

 

Select Homilies of Ælfric by Henry Sweet 1885. Private collection

 

Between the 15th and 18th century Middle English would develop into early Modern English. The outcome of this change would create the Great Vowel Shift, which significantly altered the pronunciation of words. The jump from Old English to Modern English would make the vocabulary rise from roughly 50,000 to 170,000. Moreover, it developed a much simpler syntax structure. It went from being a synthetic language that was predominately Germanic, to an analytical language with added Romance vocabulary; hence why English has a Germanic-Latinate mix which is both weird and wonderful! 

 

So, is Old English a dead language? Yes and no. Many of its words still exist but in a different form: 

 

Old English: Blōd

Modern English: Blood 

 

Old English: Consul 

Modern English: Consul

 

Old English: Flyht

Modern English: Flight 

 

Old English: Hunta

Modern English: Hunter 

 

Old English: Panne

Modern English: Pan 

 

Old English: Wæter

Modern English: Water   

 

A fair comparison can be made with Classical Latin, as it shares similar circumstances. Both Latin and Old English never really died, they respectfully evolved into the modern Romance languages (Spanish, Portuguese, French, Italian and Romanian) and Modern English. There are educational courses available to study both subjects, but status similarities differ when you consider the use of Latin is habitual for 100 fluent speakers. Sadly, Old English does not share this status. 

 

Latin Wall Writing Image by Stephen Shankland. Flickr: https://flic.kr/p/nrDKdJ

 

There are three key points as to why the Anglo-Saxon language is worth learning:

 

1. Maintaining its survival: Some contemporaries today might see it as being unfashionable or irrelevant, but this outlook could be different for future generations. Solely keeping Old English in the confines of books and lecture rooms does not guarantee its preservation; nor does it broadly attract potential learners. If a language is to survive, it must first thrive in some capacity.
2. Expanding historical knowledge: The people of the past have left an imprint on the world through their everyday speech. Researching Old English can not only assist us in understanding Anglo-Saxon idiosyncrasies 1000 years ago, but it can also provide us with an insight into the present synchronic form and future direction of Modern English. Reading ancient texts—as it was initially intended to be written—can supply new historical interpretations of historical figures and events.
3. Improving language proficiency: Studying Old English does not only help to comprehend the roots of Modern English, but it can also build the foundations needed for acquiring and understanding other languages and cultures. When you learn a new language, you obtain a new way of thinking which can enhance your communication methods. Such methods of acquisition can open doors to learning additional styles of conversing, especially when studying another Germanic language. "Eall on muðe þæt on mode" is an apt Anglo-Saxon proverb which translates as: "All in the mouth that's in the mind".

 

Image by Robin Croft, Flickr Stained Glass Window of Alfred the Great https://flic.kr/p/6iXbxK

 

 

"Remember what punishments befell us in this world when we ourselves did not cherish learning nor transmit it to other men."  

~ King Alfred the Great

 

Alfred's foreboding quote referred to the sackings inflected by Viking raids on monasteries like Iona, Lindisfarne and Monkwearmouth–Jarrow. As a result of these incursions, the Vikings would slay many learned clergies while burning libraries and purloining artefacts. Clerical residents would oversee places of religious worship which were held as hubs for knowledge and learning. In Europe during the medieval period, Latin was the universal language for religion, law, academia, governance and literature; but, it was not a vernacular the ordinary people understood. The type of Anglo-Saxons who were primarily literate in Latin tended to be high ranking members of the Church and realm. With the former starting to dwindle in numbers due to Viking attacks, Latin documents of governance and education were unable to be proficiently translated. This outcome risked the mistranslation and disregard of sacred oaths and laws relating to religion or state.          

 

Lindisfarne Priory with Lindisfarne Castle in the distance Image by Daniel Letford. Flickr: https://flic.kr/p/2jRofmG

                          

Medieval Scribe Image by Lamson Library. Flickr: https://flic.kr/p/6Ujo4P

 

Thanks to the efforts of Alfred the Great, Old English would be one of the first native languages in Europe to have notable scriptures translated from Latin. By advocating the production of these translations, Alfred was creating a text which was no longer exclusive to clerical intellectuals and other privileged members of society. He believed in bettering the living standards of his people by providing them with the freedom of knowledge. As a devout Christian, Alfred felt that morality and enlightenment could only prevail through education. Even today, we collectively try to celebrate and preserve these esteemed ideals.

 

"No language is justly studied merely as an aid to other purposes. It will in fact better serve other purposes, philological or historical, when it is studied for love, for itself."   

~ J.R.R. Tolkien  

 

Beowulf book cover Image by Unwieldy Locutions. Flickr: https://flic.kr/p/37bzUe

 

Though Tolkien was a respected professor and philologian at Oxford University, he is better known for being the author of The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings trilogy. As an expert of Old English literature, he appreciated its poetical beauty, and would notably be inspired by such works as Beowulf when writing his renowned books. Because of these influences, Tolkien's creative works revolutionised the fantasy genre for many avid readers and budding writers for generations. As well as making a universal impact on the literary sphere, Old English has acted as a progenitor for the most widely spoken language in the world. The widespread use of English has undeniably shaped modern western civilisation and global pop culture, and it has been a journey which all started with its Anglo-Saxon forebear. 

 

English Language Centre Image by University of Victoria. Flickr: https://flic.kr/p/9htstE

 

Road Sign in English and Welsh Image by johnsti777. Flickr: https://flic.kr/p/2js1mK4

We only to have to look to our Celtic neighbours to see the cultural benefits gained from revived languages like Breton, Cornish, Irish Gaelic, Scottish Gaelic and Welsh. Many of these languages had previously been small unofficial dialects or had become nearly extinct through low status. Now, Celtic linguistics is making a resurgence and bringing communities closer together through local governance, education, business and the arts. Although commendable, it is not essential to teach Old English in schools, nor is it necessary to have it written across signs and billboards. Nonetheless, it would be a great shame to overlook something which has contributed so much to our history and culture. Old English does not solely belong to the Anglo-Saxons; it belongs to all English speakers of today and tomorrow onwards. 

 

 

 Author: Thomas Davies 

 

 

 

Refs/Sources: 

 

N. Parsons, David. Sabrina in the thorns: place-names as evidence for British and Latin in Roman Britain. Transactions of the Royal Philological Society.  

 

Coates, Richard, "Invisible Britons: The View from Linguistics", in Britons in Anglo-Saxon England, ed. by Nick Higham, Publications of the Manchester Centre for Anglo-Saxon Studies. 

 

https://www.etymonline.com

 

https://www.babbel.com/en/magazine/easiest-languages-for-english-speakers-to-learn 

 

de Vaan, Michiel. Etymological Dictionary of Latin and the other Italic Language. Brill Publishing.  

 

https://web.archive.org/web/20110501100652/http://www6.ocn.ne.jp/~wil/ 

 

Abels, Richard. Alfred the Great: War, Kingship and Culture in Anglo-Saxon England. Longman Press. 

 

Attenborough, F.L. The laws of the earliest English kings. Cambridge University Press. 

 

Lavelle, Ryan. Alfred's Wars: Sources and Interpretations of Anglo-Saxon Warfare in the Viking Age. Woodbridge, Suffolk: Boydel Press. 

 

Parker, Joanne. England's Darling. Manchester: Manchester University Press.

 

https://aclerkofoxford.blogspot.com/p/old-english-wisdom.html

 

http://www.heimskringla.no/wiki/Main_Page 

 

http://germanic.eu/Scandinavian-loanwords-in-Old-and-Middle-English-and-their-legacy-in-the-dialects-of-England-and-modern-standard-English.htm

 

http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20011116085544/http://www.ucalgary.ca/uofc/eduweb/engl401/grammar/index.htm

 

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Robinson, Orrin. Old English and Its Closest Relatives: A Survey of the Earliest Germanic Languages. Stanford University Press. 

 

Hogg, Richard M. "Chapter7: English in Britain". In Denison, David; Hogg, Richard M: A History of the English language. Cambridge University Press.

 

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Fisher, Ellen Rose. An analysis of Tolkien's use of Old English language to create the personal names of key characters in The Lord of the Rings and the significance of these linguistic choices in regards to character development and the discussion of humanity in the novel more widely. School of English, University of Nottingham. 

The Wuffingas Dynasty - Wolf Kings of East Anglia

 

The Wuffingas Dynasty - Wolf Kings of East Anglia 

 

The year is 449, three ships carrying men of the Angle tribe sail by the east coast of Romano-Briton's shores. These ferocious warriors have travelled in search of employment and opportunity from the region of Anglia (today covering Northern Germany and Southern Denmark). When they arrive on land, they are welcomed with open arms by the natives and freely pass through fortifications initially designed to keep them out. The Britons have hired these Germanic mercenaries to protect their Northern territories against raids from Picts and Scots. However, after successfully fulfilling this purpose, a group of these mercenaries came across a flat and fertile land predominately surrounded by coastline. This South easterly region made them realise they were not that homesick after all. The Romano-Briton presence would cease to exist, and the area in question would later become the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of East Anglia.  

 

The terrain itself is marshy with low-lying meadows and over 90 miles of coastline covering its eastern boundaries, making it an ideal environment for providing agriculture and fishing.

Barrow, Suffolk. Source: istock

 The kingdom covered the now English counties of Norfolk and Suffolk along with parts of Cambridgeshire and The Fens. Norfolk refers to the 'North Folk' inhabitants of the realm, and Suffolk refers to the 'South Folk'. Compared to other Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, East Anglia's historical timeline is vague and mysterious. To understand the reason behind this protohistorical occurrence, we must first jump forward in time. In 865, the now Christian Anglo-Saxons had to withstand an invasion from a Pagan force⁠. This foreign menace came from Scandinavia and was named the Vikings; their army would be referred to by contemporary Saxon scholars as the 'Great Heathen Army'. Similar to what the Anglo-Saxon ancestors did to the Romano-Britons, the Vikings mainly started their occupation in the East of England—Northumbria and East Anglia to be exact. During this epoch, the ruler of the Angles was King Edmund. He would later be known as Saint Edmund the Martyr after being executed by Viking marauders for championing the Christian faith. At the time, it was the duty of the clergymen to scribe and record accounts of the land and its notable inhabitants. These documents were kept inside churches, monasteries, and abbeys. The majority of these religious sites were burnt and destroyed during the Viking purge of East Anglia, resulting in many historical scriptures being lost. 

 

We can now go back and start in the mid-6th century to the first king of the East Angles. He was named Wehha, although some believe his son, Wuffa, was the first true king of the region. His identity is uncertain as there are minimal sources about him. We can only assume he founded a nation that would act as a home for not only Angles but additionally, some Jutes and Frisians. Both Wehha and Wuffa are viewed as semi-historical figures, but Wuffa would sow the seeds for a long-ruling dynasty inspired by his name, the Wuffingas. Old English translations of the Wuffingas vary from 'the kin of the wolf' to 'descendants of the wolf'. It is believed that his rule began in 571 when he established his royal seat at Rendlesham (Suffolk): a base of authority and administration for future East Anglian monarchs. Signs show that the Wuffingas had ties not only to Germany but also Scandinavia. Compared to other English kingdoms, East Anglia still had a close traditional affiliation with the region. It is widely accepted that the epic poem 'Beowulf', though set in Denmark and Sweden, was likely composed in the palace halls of Rendlesham during the 8th century. The tale suggests an ancestral link between the Wuffingas and the 'Wulfings' mentioned in the poem. Another reliable indication to this Viking connection is that the East Anglians performed the rite of a ship-burial, a practice most associated with Viking custom. The most famous burials of this kind were discovered at Sutton Hoo (Woodbridge, Suffolk) and Snape cemetery (Aldeburgh, Suffolk).  

 

Wuffa's crown was then succeeded by his son, Tytila, for reasons undetermined. Like his father, details of Tytila and his reign are not known. He would sire two sons named Rædwald (or Redwald) and Eni. After he died in 616, his eldest son, Rædwald, would ascend to the throne. Rædwald's younger brother, Eni, would never become king, but his children would later influence East Anglia's history. Rædwald is considered to be one of the most famous historical figures of Anglo-Saxon England. His formative years on the throne would be under the overlordship of the King Æthelberht of Kent who held the title of Imperium (or Bretwalda) over the southern kingdoms. Through the guidance of Æthelberht, he would be the first East Anglian king to be baptised. It is a common conjecture that many of his Pagan kin were unhappy with his conversion to Christianity; chiefly his wife, whose name is not indeed known. It is a general understanding that she was a Pagan princess from the Kingdom of Essex. She and her followers ostensibly attempted to persuade him away from the faith. Instead of choosing one-over-the-other, he praised and preserved both Christian and Pagan places of worship within his kingdom. This religious sentiment would set as a precedent for Rædwald's oscillation between the two faiths throughout his life.   

Highlighted map of East Anglia. Source: istock 

Rædwald took part in the defeat of King Æthelfrith of Northumbria at the Battle of River Idle. During the battle, Æthelberht of Kent was slain—thus—Rædwald was made Imperium overlord in his sted. He subsequently installed a puppet king named Edwin to sit on the Northumbrian throne. The aftermath of the campaign in Northumbria resulted in a power shift that would earn him the honorary title of Bretwalda meaning 'Britain-ruler' or 'wide-ruler'. He would be the first and only East Anglian king to receive this title. Most of the large settlements in East Anglia were all originally Roman foundations and structures. Rædwald would build the first major Anglo-Saxon settlement in the region by funding the development of the trading port of Gipeswic (now modern-day Ipswich, Suffolk). The construction of Gipeswic would put East Anglia on the map while setting in motion the region's trade with the rest of Britain, going as far as Northern Europe and even the Byzantine Empire! Rædwald's remarkable reign would come to an end after his death in 624. Rædwald is renowned for being the most plausible candidate to be buried in the Sutton Hoo ship barrow. Only someone of Rædwald's high-standing could have received such a lavish contemporary funeral.